1589 -- Galileo, age 25, appointed chair of mathematics at the University of Pisa.
c. 1603 -- Galileo invents the thermoscope, an early version of the air thermometer.
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| Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Portrait by Leoni - French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/home/homegrsp.html), Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=178639 |
24 Mar 1603 -- Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded on the throne by James I.
4 May 1607 -- The Virginia Company of London establishes a permanent colony at Jamestown.
3 Sep 1609 -- Henry Hudson, sailing aboard the Half Moon, reaches the mouth of the river that would later bear his name.
1617-- Giuseppi Biancani, S.J. of Bologna publishes a diagram of Galileo's thermoscope.
1619 – Galileo publishes Il Saggiatore (The Assayer), which describes his version of the scientific method, including the idea of that nature should be studied with mathematical tools rather than scholastic philosophy. He also advocates an atomistic conception of heat, partly based on his thermoscope experiments.
1620 -- Francis Bacon published Novum Organum, advocating a new system of logic appropriate for the Scientific Age.
1624 -- The Dutch West India Company establishes New Amsterdam as a fur trading post at the tip of Manhattan.
1628 -- William Harvey of England publishes Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (On the Motion of the Heart and Blood).
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| An experiment from Harvey's de Motu Cordis. Sigerist, Henry E. (1965) Große Ärzte, München, Deutschland: J.F. Lehmans Verlag (5. Auflage) (1. Auflage 1958) plate 26 p 120, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4551254 |
1643 -- Evangelista Torricelli (age 35) at the University of Pisa invents the first Mercury barometer, consisting of a tube of Mercury in a tube sealed at one end, and with the open end submerged in a container of the same fluid. He finds the height of liquid decreases from approximately a meter to approximately 77 cm, with the height of the liquid fluctuating with air pressure.
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| Noi viviamo sommersi nel fondo d'un pelago d'aria. (We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of air.) --E. Torricelli, 1644. Diagram uploaded by Kilom691 - The New Student's Reference Work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6755321 |
6 Jan 1645 -- The English Parliament establishes the New Model Army, based on a modernized concept of using full-time professional soldiers available for deployment anywhere in the British Isles.
1647 -- Blaise Pascal of France publishes Nouvelles Experiences touchant le vide (New Experiments with the Vacuum) based on experiments with the Torricelli barometer. He demonstrates by logic that the the empty column about the Mercury must be a vacuum.
19 Sep 1648 -- Pascal sends a friend to the top of Puy de Dôme (el. 4,806 ft) with a barometer to take measurements of air pressure at the top. The results conclusively verify the mechanical theory of air.
30 Jan 1649 -- Charles I is executed at Whitehall, ending the monarchy in England.
3 Sep 1651 -- Oliver Cromwell leads the Parliamentarian forces to a crushing victory over the Royalists at the Battle of Worcester, marking a decisive end to the English Civil War.
31 Jul 1653 -- The fleets of the Commonwealth of England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands fight to a draw at the Battle of Scheveningen, in the last battle of the First Anglo-Dutch War.
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| Battle of Scheveningen (Slag bij Ter Heijde)(Jan Abrahamsz. Beerstraten) Beerstraaten - www.rijksmuseum.nl : Home : Info, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5032714 |
1654 -- Otto von Guericke of Germany invents a vacuum pump consisting of piston driven by an air gun cylinder. He uses it to investigate properties of the vacuum, and demonstrates the force of air pressure.
1659 -- Robert Boyle of England, hearing of von Guericke's pump, builds his own "Pneumatical Engine" at Oxford and uses it to study the scientific properties of air.
29 May 1660 -- Charles II proclaimed King of England in London, restoring the English monarchy, as well as the House of Stuart to the English throne.
1662 -- Boyle publishes experimentally-determined mathematical law regarding the pressure and volume of an "ideal gas."
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| Boyle's law states that as the volume of the gas doubles, the pressure decreases by one half (inverse proportional relationship). By Krishnavedala - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=16241859 |
1662 -- Edward Somerset, second Marquess of Worcester, publishes a book of inventions containing his an idea for a steam-powered pump to supply water to fountains.
1667 -- John Milton publishes Paradise Lost in London.
1679 -- Denis Papin of France invents the steam digester, a device extracting fats from bones in a high-pressure steam environment, as well as the first steam-release valve.
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| Steam
digester by Papin. en.wikipedia -
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/thurston/1878/Chapter1.html,
Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11079399 |
1684 -- Gottfried Leibniz of Germany publishes his first paper using calculus.
1687 – Isaac Newton publishes Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica presenting the first unified theory of mechanics, including a mathematical theory of the relation between fluid pressure and density that verifies Boyle's law and the mechanical theory of air pressure due to Pascal.
13 Feb 1689 -- William III (of Orange) crowned King of England, overthrowing James II, after successfully invading England with a Dutch Army and with the help of the English Parliament (The Glorious Revolution).
1690 -- Denis Papin of France publishes "Nouvelle méthode pour obtenir à bas prix des forces considérables" (A new method for cheaply obtaining considerable forces). He describes a theoretical design for a steam-powered piston engine that could produce useful work.
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| Papin design for steam-powered piston engine. Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=399033 |
1694 -- William III grants the royal charter to the Bank of England, as devised by Charles Montagu.
1698 -- Thomas Savery patented a steam-powered pump he called the Miner's Friend, essentially identical to Somerset's design. It ecomes an alternative to horse-driven pumps in mines, but is limited by its use of a vacuum to draw water upward, rather than pushing it the manner of horse-driven pumps.
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| Savery pump. By Institute of Human Thermodynamics and IoHT Publishing Ltd. - Image copy/pasted from http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/HT-history.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7711134 |
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| The revolutionary Newcomen Engine Design (wikipedia) |
1714 -- Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the Mercury-in-glass thermometer with a temperature measurement scale.
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| Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) (wikpedia) |
1729 -- John Allen of England describes and patents and early design for a steam powered water craft.
1736 -- Jonathan Hulls in England is granted a patent for a Newcomen engine-powered steamboat design that involves the translation of rectilinear piston-rod motion into rotatory motion suitable to power a watercraft. His early experiments on water are not conclusive at demonstrating the effectiveness of the craft.
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| Hulls' 1736 proposal for a paddle-tug. By Jonathan Hull - Gutenberg project, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7888637 |
1741 -- Benjamin Franklin invents the Franklin stove. It has a flue design that draws the heated air over a baffle, allowing for much greater efficiency in the transfer of heat into the room, and producing less smoke.
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| Cross sectional diagram of the Franklin stove. Cool air enters the baffle through a duct under the floor. Smoke exits through a U-shaped duct in the floor. en: cwkmail - Google Books: John Pickering Putnam, The Open Fire-place in All Ages (Boston, Massachusetts: James R. Osgood and Co., 1881), page 50, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20078084 |
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| Map of New France in the year 1750. By Pinpin - Own work from Image:Nouvelle-France1750.png1) CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3086036 |
1763 -- James Watt of Scotland is asked to repair a faulty Newcomen engine belonging to the University of Glasgow. Watt determines through experimentation that the Newcomen design is highly inefficient in fuel usage, in that about three-quarters of the energy of the steam is consumed on every cycle in the heating the engine cylinder instead of producing useful mechanical work. He sets about trying to find a more efficient engine design.
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| Portrait of James Watt (1736–1819) by Carl Frederik von Breda. |
May 1765-- Watt makes critical efficiency improvement to the steam engine, including causing the steam to condense in a separate chamber apart from the piston. Among other things, this greatly reduced the coal fuel needed to produce the same power output.
19 Apr 1775 -- Thomas Gage leads British forces to a siege of Boston following the Battles of Lexington and Concord.
9 Mar 1776-- Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations
May 1776 -- Boulton & Watt, engineering firm, produce their first steam engine, for the Bloomfield Colliery at Tipton,
1776 --- Marquis Claude de Jouffroy of France demonstrates an early version of paddle steamer.
19 Oct 1781 -- Cornwallis surrenders to Washington, ending the Siege of Yorktown.
1782 -- Watt uses data from a saw mill to determine that a horse could lift 33,000 pounds the distance of one foot in one minute, establishing the unit of the horsepower. (source)
19 Aug 1782 -- William Caldwell leads a force of about 50 Loyalists along with 300 American Indians who ambush and rout 182 Kentucky militiamen at the Battle of Blue Licks.
15 Jul 1783 -- Marquis Claude de Jouffroy and his colleagues publicly demonstrate the Pyroscaphe, paddle steamer powered by a Newcomen steam engine. It travelled upstream on the river Saône for some fifteen minutes before the engine failed.
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| Model made by de Jouffroy in 1784 to show the French Science Academy the engine and paddle wheels used on the Pyroscaphe. The model is now in the National Maritime Museum in Paris.[1] CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=1156390 |
3 Sep 1783 -Representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America sign the Treaty of Paris ending the American Revolutionary War. The crown recognizes the U.S. as a sovereign and independent nation.
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| Benjamin West's painting of the delegations at the Treaty of Paris: John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Franklin. The British delegation refused to pose, and the painting was never completed. http://www.harpers.org/archive/2008/03/hbc-90002651, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=868138. |
1784 -- Boulton & Watt introduce steam engine with parallel motion which was essential in double-acting engines as it produced the straight line motion required for the cylinder rod and pump, from the connected rocking beam, whose end moves in a circular arc
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| Parallel motion steam engine by Boulton and Watt, 1784. Diagram by Robert Henry Thurston (1839–1903) - Scanned from a paper reproduction of the original sketch.From a book published in 1878 in New York: A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine, by Robert H. Thurston, professor of mechanical engineering in the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hobroken, USA.Thurston, Robert Henry (1878) "James Watt and His Inventions" in A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine, New York, United States: D. Appleton and Company, pp. p. 119 Retrieved on 16 September 2010., Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3478839 |
1784 -- William Murdoch introduces first model steam carriage.
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| Murdoch Steam Carriage. By Birmingham Museums Trust - Birmingham Museums Trust, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=39237265 |
22 Aug 1787 -- John Fitch of Pennsylvania, using a Newcomen design similar to Claude de Jouffroy, makes a successful demonstration of a steam driven craft on the Delaware River at Philadelphia, in the presence of delegates from the Constitutional Convention. The next year he begins offering regular passenger service on the river. Fitch is granted a patent in 1791, but he is financially unsuccessfully due to patent disputes with other inventers.
14 Jul 1789 --Bernard-René de Launay, the French governor of the Bastille, surrenders to a mob of Revolutionary supporters.
1791 -- Alexander Hamilton and partners in New Jersey establish the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures, with the idea of building of mills using the Great Falls of the Passaic River.
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| "Plan of Mr. Fitch's Steam Boat", The Columbian Magazine (December 1786), woodcut by James Trenchard. By James Trenchard - The Columbian Magazine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2006691757/?sid=34e05bc124d340189b4aa5de4485a399, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=10046605 |
1793 -- William Blake completes The Marriage of Heaven and Hell.
10 Nov 1793 -- Notre-Dame de Paris is rededicated as a Temple of Reason.
1794 -- William Murdoch demonstrates his steam carriage design to Richard Trevithick.
9 Nov 1799 -- Napoleon seizes power in a coup in France, proclaiming himself First Consul of the French Republic.
29 Jul 1800 -- Robert Fulton of Pennsylvania, on commission from Napoleon, makes the first test dives of the Nautilus, his design for the first practical military submarine, at Rouen,
11 Feb 1801 -- Thomas Jefferson elected President of the United States by vote of the Electoral College.
18 Jan 1803 -- President Jefferson, concerned about the fact that the British were carrying on a lucrative fur trade with American Indians along the northern border, sent a special message to Congress about a proposed expedition to the West.
30 Apr 1803 -- Napoleon sells Louisiana to the United States.
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| Louisiana Purchase. Mapby William Morris - CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=42826877 |
18 May 1803 -- Britain declares war on France, beginning the twelve years of the Napoleonic wars.
21 Feb 1804 -- Richard Trevithick demonstrates the first steam-driven locomotive, which hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren Ironworks, in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales.
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| Trevithick's No. 14 engine, built by Hazledine and Company, Bridgnorth, about 1804, and illustrated after being rescued circa 1885; from Scientific American Supplement, Vol. XIX, No. 470, 3 January 1885. This engine is on view at the Science Museum (London). Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=7423719 |
14 May 1804 -- The Lewis and Clark Expedition sets out from St. Louis by keelboat up the Missouri River to reach the Pacific Ocean. Instructed by President Jefferson to gather scientific data along the way, they carry three thermometers among their supplies.
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